Creating a medieval manuscript illumination was an intricate process involving several skilled artisans: Preparation of the Parchment: Animal skins were cleaned, stretched, and scraped until smooth.   Writing the Text: Scribes used quills dipped in ink to copy the text carefu

Medieval manuscripts are among the most remarkable surviving artifacts from the Middle Ages. Beyond their written text, these manuscripts often contain exquisite illustrations—known as illuminations—that provide a vivid window into medieval culture, religion, art, and daily life. This ar

The conflict between Henry III and the rebellious barons escalated into the Second Barons' War (1263–1267). Simon de Montfort’s leadership was pivotal. Initially acting as a mediator, he soon took up arms against the king. In 1264, Simon’s forces defeated Henry III’s a

King Henry III’s reign (1216–1272) was marked by chronic financial difficulties, military failures, and political strife. Henry sought to assert strong royal authority, but his policies often alienated the English nobility. The king’s frequent demands for taxes to fund foreign wars